Authors

Discussion

The paper offers a comprehensive overview of different types of privatisation of the use of force that occurred in the war between Russia and Ukraine since 2022, including private military companies, mercenaries, civilian resistance and civil-military cooperation. Specifically, the paper asks the question how the warring parties (de-)legitimise these different forms of privatisation of the use of force vis-à-vis international audiences. Accordingly, a content analysis will be conducted to identify the legitimation strategies and framings used to represent various privatisation phenomena, encompassing both internal dynamics and those attributed to the enemy. The analysis focusses on official statements by government agencies, such as press releases, informational websites or reports issued since February 2022, as starting point of the full-scale invasion of Ukraine, during which new, private actors have emerged on both sides. The scope of the analysis will be limited to sources issued in the English language, in order to infer insights on the nature of (de-)legitimation strategies when designed to target international audiences to garner external support. Thematic coding of selected materials will be used to identify common narratives, that suggest either legitimation, delegitimation or denial of the different types of privatisation of the use of force, and to identify what sources of legitimacy are invoked in these processes. The study relies on theoretical considerations by E. W. Schoon and S. von Billerbeck & B. Gippert on legitimation in conflict contexts and makes use of an analytical framework provided by F. Weigand to analyse legitimacy in conflict-torn contexts. The paper contends that the delegitimation of the privatisation of force vis-à-vis an international audience is mainly shaped by the strategic invocation of substantive legitimacy, e.g., through reference to different norms of international relations, such as the anti-mercenary norm or the state monopoly of the use of force. Legitimation strategies on the other hand predominantly rely on instrumental legitimacy vis-à-vis an international audience.

The analysis is particularly relevant for emerging knowledge areas, such as on hybrid threats, and information warfare. It dissects legal and definitional issues, where international or domestic law fails to provide guidance and clear definitional frameworks. Further, it aims to establish a systematic analysis of (de-)legitimation strategies in the context of the Russia-Ukraine war. It lays the foundation for subsequent research, that may assess how international audiences respond to the identified legitimation strategies, constructing a contemporary hierarchy of legitimacy sources and the dimensions within, related to the privatisation of the use of force.