Authors

Takehiko Inoue¹;  ¹ Osaka Kyoiku University, Japan

Discussion

The purpose of this paper is to examine the activities of Kalmyk émigrés from the 1920s to the 1940s, focusing on their identity as Buddhists and as an Asian ethnic group from the former Russian Empire, in order to shed light on the development of their relationships with Imperial Japan and Germany. The Kalmyks were Mongolic-speaking Tibetan Buddhists who had been subjects of the Russian Empire since the 17th century. In the late 19th century, they strengthened their connections with Tibet, hoping to foster ties between the Russian Tsar and the Dalai Lama. During this period, Buddhists from the Russian Empire, including the Kalmyks, began to become increasingly aware of their solidarity with other Asian Buddhists. Eventually, as a result of the October Revolution and the Russian Civil War, many Kalmyks, particularly those from the Don Army who served as Cossack soldiers, were forced to flee the Red Army and sought exile in Europe, traveling from the Crimean Peninsula alongside other Russian soldiers by naval vessels. Most settled in Belgrade via Anatolia, although they gradually dispersed across Europe due to economic hardship.
This study primarily focuses on the activities of Kalmyk intellectual S. Balykov (1894–1943), who was active in Prague, along with the Kalmyk cultural organizations centered around him. The research contributes to the understanding of collaborations with Germany and Imperial Japan. The reality of these collaborations has hindered studies of Kalmyk émigré society. Moreover, the relatively small number of Kalmyk émigrés, estimated to be around 15,000, has also contributed to the scarcity of research. Existing studies have mostly concentrated on aspects of their national movements and cultural activities. This research emphasizes the Kalmyks' identities as Buddhists and Asians, as well as Imperial Japan’s global image as a Buddhist nation promoting the "liberation of Asia." It aims to clarify how these factors contributed to the attraction of Kalmyk émigrés to the Axis powers.